Pronunciation Index

The -au- Sound

Vowel sounds

The spelling au in English is almost never pronounced like the Spanish "AU" (a + u together). It typically sounds like a long OH or the vowel in ball.

The mistake Pronouncing "au" as in Spanish — two separate vowels

❌ Common error: Reading "au" as a diphthong (like Spanish a + u). In English, "au" is a single sound — it never splits into two vowels.

Sound 1 — /ɔː/ Like the vowel in ball, all, caught — most common

This is the most frequent sound for "au" in English. It's a long, rounded vowel — think of the sound in ball or saw.

audition /ɔːˈdɪʃ.ən/ — NOT "a-u-dition"
Australia /ɒˈstreɪ.li.ə/ — the "au" sounds like "aw"
author /ˈɔː.θər/
authentic /ɔːˈθen.tɪk/
August /ˈɔː.ɡəst/
audience /ˈɔː.di.əns/
automatic /ˌɔː.təˈmæt.ɪk/

Sound 2 — /ɒ/ or /ɑː/ Like the vowel in not, stop — in some words

Australia /ɒˈstreɪ.li.ə/ — short o sound in BrE
because /bɪˈkɒz/ — "au" → short o

Key rule

When you see "au" in English, think OH / AW — never the Spanish "A + U" combination. The two letters always fuse into a single sound.

-ay / -ai Sound

Vowel sounds

The spellings -ay and -ai- almost always produce the same sound in English: the diphthong /eɪ/ — like the name of the letter "A".

/eɪ/ — like the letter "A" -ay and -ai always sound the same

-ay / -ai- = /eɪ/ (sounds like "ei" in "eight")

-ay words

say /seɪ/ day /deɪ/ way /weɪ/ play /pleɪ/
today /təˈdeɪ/ okay /əʊˈkeɪ/ display /dɪˈspleɪ/
delay /dɪˈleɪ/ always /ˈɔːl.weɪz/

-ai- words

wait /weɪt/ rain /reɪn/ train /treɪn/ explain /ɪkˈspleɪn/
maintain /meɪnˈteɪn/ detail /ˈdiː.teɪl/
available /əˈveɪ.lə.bəl/

-CC- — Two Different Sounds

Consonant spelling

When -cc- appears in a word, it can be pronounced in two ways depending on the vowel that follows. This catches many learners off guard because the spelling looks the same in both cases.

/k/ — before A, O, U (or a consonant)

Before the vowels A, O, U, double-C is simply a strong /k/ sound — like a single hard C.

account /əˈkaʊnt/
accurate /ˈæk.jʊ.rɪt/
occupy /ˈɒk.jʊ.paɪ/
accomplish /əˈkʌm.plɪʃ/

/ks/ — before E or I

Before E or I, the double-C splits into two sounds: /k/ + /s/ = /ks/. This is the one that surprises learners.

accent /ˈæk.sənt/ — not "a-SENT"
accept /əkˈsept/ — not "a-SEPT"
access /ˈæk.ses/
accident /ˈæk.sɪ.dənt/
succeed /səkˈsiːd/
eccentric /ɪkˈsen.trɪk/

⚠ The rule: CC + E/I = /ks/. If you see accept, accent, access, accident, always pronounce the double-C as /ks/.

CH Pronounced /ʃ/

Consonant sounds

In most English words, "ch" sounds like /tʃ/ (as in church, cheese). But in words borrowed from French, "ch" is pronounced /ʃ/ — the "sh" sound.

French-origin words: ch = /ʃ/ These words use the "SH" sound, not "CH"

machine /məˈʃiːn/ — NOT "ma-CHEEN"
chef /ʃef/ — NOT "cheff"
champagne /ʃæmˈpeɪn/
chauffeur /ˈʃəʊ.fər/
chic /ʃiːk/
brochure /ˈbrəʊ.ʃər/
parachute /ˈpær.ə.ʃuːt/
mustache / moustache /məˈstɑːʃ/

Contrast — regular CH = /tʃ/

church, cheese, choose, chair, challenge, check — all use /tʃ/

How to tell the difference

There's no perfect rule, but most French-borrowed words that use /ʃ/ are related to food, fashion, or luxury. When in doubt, check the dictionary — these words need to be memorised individually.

CH Pronounced /k/

Consonant sounds

In words of Greek origin, "ch" is pronounced /k/ — not /tʃ/ ("ch") and not /ʃ/ ("sh"). These words need to be learnt individually.

The mistake "stomach" → "sto-MATCH" or "sto-MASH"

❌ The error: Applying the standard English "ch" sound (/tʃ/) or the French "ch" (/ʃ/) to Greek-origin words. The correct sound is /k/ — the same as the letter C in "cat".

Greek-origin words: ch = /k/

Body & health

stomach /ˈstʌm.ək/ — NOT "sto-match" or "sto-mash"
ache /eɪk/ — NOT "atch". Also: headache /ˈhed.eɪk/, toothache /ˈtuːθ.eɪk/, backache /ˈbæk.eɪk/
psychology /saɪˈkɒl.ə.dʒi/ — the "ps" is also silent; "ch" = /k/
psychiatrist /saɪˈkaɪ.ə.trɪst/

Science & academic

chemistry /ˈkem.ɪ.stri/ — NOT "chemmistry"
character /ˈkær.ɪk.tər/
chaos /ˈkeɪ.ɒs/
chronic /ˈkrɒn.ɪk/
technical /ˈtek.nɪ.kəl/
echo /ˈek.əʊ/
scheme /skiːm/
school /skuːl/

Other common words

architect /ˈɑː.kɪ.tekt/
orchestra /ˈɔː.kɪ.strə/
monarch /ˈmɒn.ək/
anchor /ˈæŋ.kər/
mechanic /mɪˈkæn.ɪk/
stomach ache /ˈstʌm.ək.eɪk/ — both "ch" sounds are /k/

Summary — three sounds of CH How to know which one to use

/tʃ/ — standard English: church, cheese, choose, change, much, watch → most English words

/ʃ/ — French origin: machine, chef, champagne, brochure → food, fashion, luxury

/k/ — Greek origin: stomach, ache, chaos, chemistry, school, character → science, academia, anatomy

There is no visual clue that tells you which sound to use — the spelling "ch" is the same in all three cases. These words need to be memorised individually, but knowing the pattern by origin group helps.

Ending -ed

Past tense & past participles

The -ed ending in regular past tenses and past participles has three different pronunciations depending on the final sound of the base verb. It is almost never pronounced as a full syllable "ed".

The rule at a glance

ends in /t/ or /d/ → /ɪd/ (extra syllable)
ends in voiceless consonant → /t/ (no extra syllable)
ends in voiced consonant or vowel → /d/ (no extra syllable)

Sound 1 — /ɪd/ After verbs ending in /t/ or /d/ — adds an extra syllable

This is the only case where -ed is pronounced as a full syllable. It only happens when the verb already ends in a /t/ or /d/ sound — otherwise two identical sounds would clash.

want → wanted /ˈwɒn.tɪd/ — 2 syllables
need → needed /ˈniː.dɪd/ — 2 syllables
start → started /ˈstɑː.tɪd/
decide → decided /dɪˈsaɪ.dɪd/
wait → waited /ˈweɪ.tɪd/
recommend → recommended /ˌrek.əˈmen.dɪd/
expect → expected /ɪkˈspek.tɪd/

Sound 2 — /t/ After voiceless consonants: /p/ /k/ /f/ /s/ /ʃ/ /tʃ/ — no extra syllable

Voiceless consonants are sounds made without vibrating the vocal cords. After these, -ed sounds like a plain /t/ — no vowel, no extra syllable.

stop → stopped /stɒpt/ — NOT "stop-ed"
work → worked /wɜːkt/
laugh → laughed /lɑːft/
miss → missed /mɪst/
finish → finished /ˈfɪn.ɪʃt/
watch → watched /wɒtʃt/
look → looked /lʊkt/
ask → asked /ɑːskt/

Sound 3 — /d/ After voiced consonants and vowels — no extra syllable

Voiced sounds are produced with vocal cord vibration. After these, -ed sounds like a plain /d/.

call → called /kɔːld/ — NOT "call-ed"
play → played /pleɪd/
live → lived /lɪvd/
agree → agreed /əˈɡriːd/
show → showed /ʃəʊd/
use → used /juːzd/
open → opened /ˈəʊ.pənd/
manage → managed /ˈmæn.ɪdʒd/

Quick test How to know which sound to use

Step 1: Look at the last sound of the base verb (not the last letter — the last sound).
e.g. "love" ends in the sound /v/, not /e/

Step 2: Is it /t/ or /d/? → use /ɪd/
Is it voiceless (/p, k, f, s, ʃ, tʃ/)? → use /t/
Is it voiced or a vowel? → use /d/

The most common mistake: pronouncing -ed as a full syllable /ɛd/ in words like worked, stopped, called. These have no extra syllable — the -ed is just a single consonant sound.

Adjectives — always /ɪd/

Some -ed words are used as adjectives and always keep the /ɪd/ pronunciation regardless of the rule above:
naked /ˈneɪ.kɪd/ · wicked /ˈwɪk.ɪd/ · sacred /ˈseɪ.krɪd/ · beloved /bɪˈlʌv.ɪd/ · aged /ˈeɪ.dʒɪd/ · learned /ˈlɜː.nɪd/

-EA- — Three Different Sounds

Vowel spelling

The spelling -ea- is one of the trickiest in English — the same two letters can produce three completely different sounds. There is no single rule; these must be learnt word by word.

/iː/ — long EE (most common)

This is the default — most -ea- words sound like a long /iː/.

sea, team, reach, clean, speak, read /siː, tiːm, riːtʃ/
teacher, meal, dream, heat, please /ˈtiː.tʃər, miːl/

/ɛ/ — short E (must be memorised)

A smaller group of very common words use /ɛ/ — the short E sound as in bed. These are high-frequency and frequently mispronounced.

bread /brɛd/ — rhymes with red
dead /dɛd/ — rhymes with bed
head /hɛd/
health /hɛlθ/
heavy /ˈhɛv.i/
ready /ˈrɛd.i/
already /ɔːlˈrɛd.i/
instead /ɪnˈstɛd/
weather /ˈwɛð.ər/ — compare: whether /ˈwɛð.ər/ (same!)
pleasure /ˈplɛʒ.ər/ treasure /ˈtrɛʒ.ər/

/eɪ/ — long A (a few words only)

A small set of words uses /eɪ/ — the same sound as the letter name "A".

break /breɪk/ — rhymes with cake
steak /steɪk/ — rhymes with cake
great /ɡreɪt/

⚠ Note: break and steak rhyme with cake, but peak and streak rhyme with seek. Same spelling pattern, different sounds — this is why -ea- must be learnt word by word.

/ɪə/ — diphthong (ear sound)

Before the letter r, the -ea- spelling often produces the diphthong /ɪə/ — starting with a short /ɪ/ and gliding toward a schwa. This is the sound in ear.

ear /ɪər/
year /jɪər/
hear /hɪər/
near /nɪər/
fear /fɪər/
clear /klɪər/
appear /əˈpɪər/

Contrast: hear /hɪər/ vs heart /hɑːt/ — the R completely changes the vowel sound. Don't confuse -ear- (diphthong) with -ear- in words like learn, early, earn (which use the /ɜː/ sound).

Ending -age

Word endings

The ending -age in English is pronounced /ɪdʒ/ — a very short, reduced sound. It is never pronounced like the Spanish "-aje" or "-ash".

The mistake "image" → "IMA-sh" or "IMA-je"

❌ The error: Pronouncing -age as "-ash" (from Spanish influence) or as "-aje". The correct ending is /ɪdʒ/ — it rhymes with "bridge".

Correct — /ɪdʒ/ Rhymes with "bridge"

image /ˈɪm.ɪdʒ/ — NOT "ima-sh" or "ima-je"
message /ˈmes.ɪdʒ/
manage /ˈmæn.ɪdʒ/
language /ˈlæŋ.ɡwɪdʒ/
advantage /ədˈvɑːn.tɪdʒ/
percentage /pəˈsen.tɪdʒ/
package /ˈpæk.ɪdʒ/
damage /ˈdæm.ɪdʒ/
village /ˈvɪl.ɪdʒ/
average /ˈæv.ər.ɪdʒ/

Exception — stressed -age

When -age is a stressed syllable (usually in words borrowed directly from French), it sounds like /ɑːʒ/:
garage /ɡəˈrɑːʒ/ camouflage /ˈkæm.ə.flɑːʒ/ massage /ˈmæs.ɑːʒ/

Ending -ey

Word endings

The ending -ey (and often -y) at the end of a word is pronounced /i/ — a short, clear "ee" sound. It is never /eɪ/ ("ei").

-ey = /i/ Always a short "ee" — never "ei"

Disney /ˈdɪz.ni/ — NOT "Dis-nei"
money /ˈmʌn.i/ — NOT "mo-nei"
honey /ˈhʌn.i/
monkey /ˈmʌŋ.ki/
turkey /ˈtɜː.ki/
valley /ˈvæl.i/
journey /ˈdʒɜː.ni/
attorney /əˈtɜː.ni/
whiskey /ˈwɪs.ki/

Contrast — -ey as /eɪ/ (stressed syllable)

When -ey is a stressed syllable (usually mid-word), it sounds like /eɪ/: they, obey, survey, convey. But at the end of a word in an unstressed syllable, it is always /i/.

Ending -tion and -sion

Suffix pronunciation

The endings -tion and -sion are extremely common in English but frequently mispronounced. The key rule: they are never pronounced as two separate syllables (ti-on). They reduce to a single syllable.

-tion → /ʃən/ (shun)

After most consonants, -tion is pronounced /ʃən/ — a single syllable that sounds like "shun".

nation /ˈneɪ.ʃən/ — NOT "na-ti-on"
action /ˈæk.ʃən/
question /ˈkwes.tʃən/ — becomes /tʃən/ after s
education /ˌed.jʊˈkeɪ.ʃən/
information /ˌɪn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/
communication /kəˌmjuː.nɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/
pronunciation /prəˌnʌn.siˈeɪ.ʃən/

After -st- or -qu-, the -tion ending becomes /tʃən/: question /ˈkwes.tʃən/, suggestion /səˈdʒes.tʃən/, combustion /kəmˈbʌs.tʃən/

-sion → /ʒən/ or /ʃən/

The -sion ending has two pronunciations depending on what comes before it.

vision /ˈvɪʒ.ən/ — /ʒ/ after a vowel
decision /dɪˈsɪʒ.ən/ — /ʒ/ after a vowel
television /ˈtel.ɪˌvɪʒ.ən/
version /ˈvɜː.ʃən/ — /ʃ/ after a consonant
tension /ˈten.ʃən/ — /ʃ/ after a consonant
extension /ɪkˈsten.ʃən/

Rule of thumb: vowel + sion = /ʒən/ (vision, decision) · consonant + sion = /ʃən/ (tension, version)

Stress always falls BEFORE -tion / -sion

In words ending in -tion or -sion, the stress always falls on the syllable immediately before the suffix.

inforMAtion /ˌɪn.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/
eduCAtion /ˌed.jʊˈkeɪ.ʃən/
deCIsion /dɪˈsɪʒ.ən/
comMUnication /kəˌmjuː.nɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

-EE- and -IE- Sounds

Vowel spelling

The spellings -ee- and -ie- both produce the long /iː/ sound in most cases — but -ie- has an important exception worth knowing.

/iː/ — long EE

-ee-

see, tree, feel, week, need, free
siː, triː, fiːl

-ie-

believe, piece, field, niece, chief
bɪˈliːv, piːs

The /iː/ sound is always long and tense — hold it slightly longer than you think. The mouth should be wide and the lips slightly spread. It never sounds like the short /ɪ/ in bit or sit.

Letter I — Sounds

Vowel sounds

The letter I has several different sounds in English. The most common mistake is pronouncing it the same way in every position — especially in suffixes like -tion, -tion, -nise, -lise.

/ɪ/ — short i Like the vowel in sit, bit, him — the most common sound

This is the unstressed "i" — short and relaxed. It appears in most unstressed syllables.

city, limit, visit, finish, digital, specific
The "-tion" ending: nation, question, organisation — the "i" here is /ɪ/ → -ʃən

/aɪ/ — long i Like the vowel in my, time, like

This is the "long I" — stressed and clearly a diphthong. Common in stressed syllables and at the end of words.

fine, mine, drive, while, decide, arrive, provide
-ise / -ize endings: organise, realise, recognise — the -ise is /aɪz/

/iː/ — "ee" sound Like the vowel in see, feel, machine

police, magazine, marine, routine, machine, elite

Letter U — Sounds

Vowel sounds

The letter U has several sounds in English. A very common mistake is pronouncing it as /ʊ/ (like "put") in words where it should be /ʌ/ (like "cup").

The mistake "culture" → "COOL-ture" instead of "CUL-ture"

❌ The error: Pronouncing the "u" in words like culture, public, result as /ʊ/ (the sound in "put" or "book"). The correct sound is /ʌ/ — like the "u" in "cup".

/ʌ/ — like "cup" Most common sound for "u" in stressed syllables

culture /ˈkʌl.tʃər/ — NOT "cool-ture"
public /ˈpʌb.lɪk/ — NOT "poob-lic"
result /rɪˈzʌlt/
discussion /dɪˈskʌʃ.ən/
production /prəˈdʌk.ʃən/
structure /ˈstrʌk.tʃər/
subject /ˈsʌb.dʒɪkt/
function /ˈfʌŋk.ʃən/

/ʊ/ — like "put" (short oo) Less common — mostly in fixed words

put, push, pull, full, bull, bush, cushion

/juː/ — long "yoo" After certain consonants

use, unit, union, university, uniform, human, music, future, cute

Omission

Connected speech

In natural English, certain sounds are routinely omitted in normal speech — even by native speakers. This is not sloppy pronunciation; it is standard connected speech. Learning which sounds get dropped helps both with listening comprehension and with sounding more natural.

Unstressed vowel omission Vowels in unstressed syllables regularly disappear

In many multi-syllable words, an unstressed vowel is simply not pronounced in natural speech. The word contracts to fewer syllables than the spelling suggests.

Middle vowel dropped

camera /ˈkæm.rə/ — "cam-era" becomes CAM-ra (the middle "e" disappears)
family /ˈfæm.li/ — "fam-i-ly" becomes FAM-ly (the "i" disappears)
every /ˈev.ri/ — "ev-er-y" becomes EV-ry
different /ˈdɪf.rənt/ — "dif-fer-ent" becomes DIF-rent
interesting /ˈɪn.trɪ.stɪŋ/ — "in-ter-est-ing" becomes IN-tres-ting
comfortable /ˈkʌmf.tə.bəl/ — "com-fort-a-ble" becomes CUMF-ta-bl
chocolate /ˈtʃɒk.lət/ — "choc-o-late" becomes CHOC-lat
vegetable /ˈvedʒ.tə.bəl/ — "veg-e-ta-ble" becomes VEJ-ta-bl
temperature /ˈtem.prə.tʃər/ — "tem-per-a-ture" becomes TEM-pra-cher
medicine /ˈmed.sɪn/ — "med-i-cine" becomes MED-sin
general /ˈdʒen.rəl/ — "gen-er-al" becomes JEN-ral
separate (adj) /ˈsep.rət/ — "sep-ar-ate" becomes SEP-ret

Consonant omission Certain consonants are regularly dropped in connected speech

Silent or reduced L

almost /ˈɔːl.məʊst/ → in fast speech often /ˈɔːm.məʊst/ — the L weakens or disappears
already /ɔːlˈred.i/ → often /ɔːˈred.i/ in fast speech
always /ˈɔːl.weɪz/ → often /ˈɔː.weɪz/

T omission — between consonants or before another consonant

exactly → "exac-ly" /ɪɡˈzæk.li/ — the T in -ct- is dropped
facts /fæks/ — the T disappears before S
next week → "nex' week" — T drops before W
last night → "las' night" — T drops before N

D omission — in consonant clusters

and → often /ən/ or /n/ in fast speech: "fish an' chips"
hands → /hænz/ — D disappears before S
friendship → /ˈfren.ʃɪp/ — the D drops in the cluster -ndsh-

H omission Pronouns and auxiliaries lose their H in connected speech

In unstressed positions within a sentence, the H at the start of pronouns and auxiliaries is regularly dropped. This is why listening can be difficult — words run together.

"Tell him" → "tell 'im" /tel.ɪm/
"Give her the book" → "give 'er the book" /ɡɪv.ə/
"What does he want?" → "what does 'e want?" /wɒt.dəz.i/
"Have you seen it?" → "'ave you seen it?" /əv.jʊ/

Note: H omission only happens in unstressed positions mid-sentence. At the start of a sentence or when emphasised, the H is always pronounced: "He told me."

Why this matters

For listening: Native speakers omit these sounds constantly. If you expect to hear every letter, you will miss words. Training your ear to expect reduced forms is essential for understanding natural speech.

For speaking: Using these reduced forms makes speech sound more natural and fluent. You don't need to force every syllable — English rhythm naturally shortens unstressed elements.

For writing: These omissions are features of speech only — always write the full spelling regardless of how the word is pronounced.

OO — Different Sounds

Vowel sounds

The spelling oo can produce four different sounds in English. There is no reliable rule — these words need to be learnt individually, but grouping them by sound helps.

Sound 1 — /uː/ (long oo) Like the vowel in you, blue, true — the most common

This is the long, rounded "oo" sound. It is the most frequent pronunciation of the "oo" spelling.

mood /muːd/ food /fuːd/ moon /muːn/ soon /suːn/
school /skuːl/ cool /kuːl/ pool /puːl/ tool /tuːl/
room /ruːm/ zoom /zuːm/ boom /buːm/ smooth /smuːð/
choose /tʃuːz/ loose /luːs/ proof /pruːf/ tooth /tuːθ/

Sound 2 — /ʊ/ (short oo) Like the vowel in put, push, book

Shorter and more relaxed than /uː/. The lips are less rounded. This group is smaller but very common in everyday words.

stood /stʊd/ good /ɡʊd/ wood /wʊd/ hood /hʊd/
book /bʊk/ look /lʊk/ cook /kʊk/ hook /hʊk/
foot /fʊt/ wool /wʊl/ soot /sʊt/ could /kʊd/
bedroom — note: "room" alone = /ruːm/, but "bedroom" is often /ˈbed.rʊm/ in BrE

Sound 3 — /ʌ/ (like "cup") Like the vowel in cup, fun, love — the most unexpected

This is the most surprising group — the "oo" spelling produces the same short /ʌ/ sound as the vowel in "cup". These words must be memorised.

blood /blʌd/ — NOT "blood" with a long oo
flood /flʌd/ — rhymes with "mud"

⚠ This group is very small — essentially just blood and flood among common words. But they are high-frequency and frequently mispronounced.

Sound 4 — /ɔː/ (like "door") Like the vowel in law, call, more

When "oo" appears before R, it typically merges with the R to produce the /ɔː/ sound — the same vowel as in more, door, floor.

door /dɔː/ — NOT "doo-er" or "dur"
floor /flɔː/ — rhymes with "more"
poor /pɔː/ (BrE) or /pʊər/ (AmE)
moor /mɔː/ (BrE)

Summary

/uː/ — long oo

mood food moon cool
school tooth choose

/ʊ/ — short oo

stood good book look
foot wood cook wool

/ʌ/ — like "cup"

blood flood

/ɔː/ — like "more"

door floor poor moor

There is no spelling rule that predicts which sound "oo" will have. The safest approach is to learn the sound alongside the word, and use a dictionary when unsure.

Noun vs. Verb Stress

Word stress

Many two-syllable words in English change their stress depending on whether they are used as a noun or a verb. The spelling stays the same — only the pronunciation changes.

Rule Noun → stress on 1st syllable · Verb → stress on 2nd syllable

noun → ˈfirst.second | verb → first.ˈsecond

Common pairs

PROject / proJECT

noun: PRO-ject · verb: pro-JECT

"The PROject is done." / "We need to proJECT the results."

PROtest / proTEST

noun: PRO-test · verb: pro-TEST

"A PROtest outside the building." / "They proTESTed the decision."

REcord / reCORD

noun: RE-cord · verb: re-CORD

"A world REcord." / "We'll reCORD the session."

PERmit / perMIT

noun: PER-mit · verb: per-MIT

"A parking PERmit." / "They won't perMIT it."

OBject / obJECT

noun: OB-ject · verb: ob-JECT

"A strange OBject." / "I obJECT to this."

PROduce / proDUCE

noun: PRO-duce · verb: pro-DUCE

"Fresh PROduce." / "They proDUCE cars."

INcrease / inCREASE

noun: IN-crease · verb: in-CREASE

"A 10% INcrease." / "Sales inCREASEd."

CONflict / conFLICT

noun: CON-flict · verb: con-FLICT

"A team CONflict." / "This conFLICTS with our plans."

DIrect / diRECT

adj/noun: DI-rect (BrE) or di-RECT · verb: di-RECT

Less clear-cut — both syllables get stress depending on dialect.

R-coloured Schwa /ɜː/

Vowel sounds

The spellings -ir-, -er-, -ur-, -or-, -ear- often all produce the same sound in English: the /ɜː/ vowel — a long, stressed "er" sound with no rolled R.

/ɜː/ — all these spellings, one sound

-ir- / -er- / -ur- / -or- / -ear- = /ɜː/

-ir- words

bird, first, shirt, circle, dirty
bɜːd, fɜːst, ʃɜːt

-er- words

her, term, person, serve, verb, perfect
hɜː, tɜːm, ˈpɜː.sən

-ur- words

turn, burn, nurse, purpose, further
tɜːn, bɜːn, nɜːs

-ear- words

learn, early, earn, search, heard
lɜːn, ˈɜː.li, ɜːn

-or- words

word, world, worm, worth, worse, work
wɜːd, wɜːld, wɜːm

Key points

The sound /ɜː/ is made with a relaxed mouth — do not roll the R. The tongue stays in the middle of the mouth. It's the same sound whether the spelling is -ir, -er, -ur, or -ear.

In unstressed syllables, this sound reduces to the schwa /ə/: teacher /ˈtiː.tʃər/, better /ˈbet.ər/, doctor /ˈdɒk.tər/

Silent Letters

Spelling vs. pronunciation

English has many words where one or more letters are written but not pronounced. These need to be memorised — there's no consistent rule.

Silent B

After M or before T

plumber /ˈplʌm.ər/ — the B is silent
bomb /bɒm/ lamb /læm/ thumb /θʌm/ climb /klaɪm/
debt /det/ doubt /daʊt/ subtle /ˈsʌt.əl/

Silent S / Silent L

Silent S

island /ˈaɪ.lənd/ — NOT "is-land" (the S is silent). Note: Iceland is a different word /ˈaɪs.lənd/ — here the S IS pronounced.
aisle /aɪl/

Silent L

could /kʊd/ would /wʊd/ should /ʃʊd/
walk /wɔːk/ talk /tɔːk/ half /hɑːf/ calm /kɑːm/
folk /fəʊk/ yolk /jəʊk/

Silent K / Silent W / Silent GH

Silent K (before N)

know /nəʊ/ knife /naɪf/ knee /niː/ knock /nɒk/

Silent W

write /raɪt/ wrap /ræp/ wrong /rɒŋ/ whole /həʊl/

Silent GH

night /naɪt/ light /laɪt/ daughter /ˈdɔː.tər/ through /θruː/
though /ðəʊ/ weight /weɪt/ straight /streɪt/

Silent G (before N)

When G appears before N — either at the end of a word or within it — the G is completely silent.

End of word (-gn)

sign /saɪn/ design /dɪˈzaɪn/ align /əˈlaɪn/
foreign /ˈfɒr.ɪn/ campaign /kæmˈpeɪn/ reign /reɪn/
assign /əˈsaɪn/ benign /bɪˈnaɪn/

Beginning of word (gn-)

gnaw /nɔː/ gnome /nəʊm/ gnu /njuː/

Note: when you add a suffix that starts with a vowel, the G is sometimes pronounced again: sign /saɪn/ → signal /ˈsɪɡ.nəl/, design /dɪˈzaɪn/ → designate /ˈdez.ɪɡ.neɪt/

Silent H and Silent T

Silent H

honest /ˈɒn.ɪst/ hour /aʊər/ heir /eər/ vehicle /ˈviː.ɪ.kəl/

Silent T

listen /ˈlɪs.ən/ fasten /ˈfɑː.sən/ often /ˈɒf.ən/ (the T is often silent)
castle /ˈkɑː.səl/ — NOT "cas-tel" bristle /ˈbrɪs.əl/ hustle /ˈhʌs.əl/ whistle /ˈwɪs.əl/

Stress Shift

Word stress

In English, stress can shift depending on the sentence context, especially in nationalities, compound adjectives, and certain words used before a noun. This is called stress shift or rhythmic stress.

Nationalities & place names Stress moves when used before a noun

Some nationalities and place names have stress on the last syllable when said alone, but shift it earlier when followed by a noun — to avoid two stresses colliding.

Portuguese: alone → "portu-GUESE" / before noun → "PORT-u-guese food"
Chinese: alone → "chi-NESE" / before noun → "CHI-nese restaurant"
Japanese: alone → "ja-pa-NESE" / before noun → "JA-pa-nese culture"

Nouns used as adjectives (before another noun) Stress moves to the first element

hotel alone → "ho-TEL" / "a HO-tel room"
afternoon alone → "after-NOON" / "AF-ter-noon tea"
downtown alone → "down-TOWN" / "DOWN-town office"

Compound adjectives Before a noun — stress on the first part

"She's well-KNOWN." → "WELL-known actress" (before noun)
"It's old-FASHioned." → "OLD-fashioned idea" (before noun)
"He's hard-WORKing." → "HARD-working employee" (before noun)

The pattern

When an adjective or compound adjective appears before a noun, the stress shifts left to avoid a stress clash with the noun. When it appears after the verb (predicative position), the original stress is kept.

Word Stress

Stress patterns

English is a stress-timed language — one syllable in every word is louder, longer, and higher in pitch. Stressing the wrong syllable can make a word unrecognisable, even if every sound is correct.

Common stress mistakes Words your students typically stress incorrectly

INteresting

IN-tres-ting (3 syllables)

Not "in-te-REST-ing"

vaRIety

va-RI-e-ty

Stress on 2nd syllable — not "VA-ri-e-ty"

deVELopment

de-vel-op-ment

Stress on VEL — not "DE-vel-op-ment"

inGREDient

in-GRE-di-ent

Stress on GRE — not "IN-gre-di-ent"

perFORmance

per-FOR-mance

Stress on FOR — not "PER-for-mance"

oPPOnent

o-PPO-nent

Stress on PPO — not "OP-po-nent"

comPOnent

com-PO-nent

Stress on PO — not "COM-po-nent"

COMfortable

CUMF-ta-bl (3 syllables)

Not "com-FOR-ta-ble"

anXIety

an-XI-e-ty

Stress on XI — not "AN-xi-e-ty"

conTROL

con-TROL

Stress on 2nd syllable — not "CON-trol"

obJECtive

ob-JEC-tive

Stress on JEC — not "OB-jec-tive"

eVAluate

e-VAL-u-ate

Stress on VAL — not "E-val-u-ate"

deTERmine

de-TER-mine

Stress on TER — not "DE-ter-mine"

aPPROpriate

a-PPR0-pri-ate

Stress on PRO — not "AP-pro-pri-ate"

asSO ciate

as-SO-ci-ate

Stress on SO — not "AS-so-ci-ate"

neGOtiate

ne-GO-ti-ate

Stress on GO — not "NE-go-ti-ate"